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UNDERSTANDING the BALKANS
An Article by Wesley M. Wilson, BS, MBA, JD
The author has made many trips in the Balkans and has studied the history of the area.
History. Are you among the many who are confused about Kosovo and the Balkans? To understand it, we must go back in their history. Most of us are familiar with Greece, its famous ancient history, and Macedonia, home of Alexander the Great. Macedonia is both the name of Greece’s northern region and of a country adjoining Greece on the north. Ancient Rome eventually controlled most of the Balkans, modern Romania was named after it and the people there speak a Latin language. Albanians speak Albanian, Slovenes speak Slovenian, both using the Latin alphabet. Croats speak Croatian-Serbian, Serbs speak the almost-identical Serbian-Croatian; both use the Cyrillic alphabet. Greeks and Bulgarians also use the Cyrillic alphabet, as do Russians. Many Bulgarians, however, are still mad at the Greeks because of atrocities in 1014. In that year a Byzantine army captured a Bulgarian army and put out the eyes of 15,000 soldiers, sending them home to Bulgaria.
In the 14th Century two great events began that had a great impact on the Balkans. Austria under the Habsburgs began to expand to the east, taking over part of modern Slovenia and Croatia. Austria encouraged Roman Catholicism. Also in the 14th Century, Islamic Turkey began to expand to the west and north, taking over most of modern Greece and Bulgaria. “Balkan” is a Turkish word that means “mountain”--all of the countries are mountainous. More than two-thirds of the people in the Balkans are Slavs, like most Russians. Since the 11th Century most of them have been represented by the Orthodox churches.
Skanderbeg Square, the heart of Tirana, Albania Dubrovnik, Croatia street scene
In 1389 Turks defeated an army of Serbs and others in Kosovo and continued to conquer most neighboring countries. By the middle of the 16th Century Turks controlled Bosnia, Hercegovina, and Kosovo. In today’s Albania, Gjergi Kastrioti, called Skanderbeg, had been an officer in the Turkish army that controlled the area. He left that army, became a Christian, and organized resistance movements. Modern Albanians claim that he won all of his 26 battles against Turks, with the help of signal fires and guerrilla tactics. Many books have been written about his exploits, on the battlefield and in the bedroom. When he died in 1468 the Turks soon again took over the area, plus most of Serbia. In 1453 Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, home of the Byzantine Empire, renaming it Istanbul. The Turkish army almost surrounded the walls of Vienna in 1529, but were slowly pushed back. In 1687 Austrians pushed the Turks out of most of Hungary. In 1867 Hungary became a junior partner in the Austria-Hungary empire, controlled by the Habsburgs.
Turks gave most of the people the option of becoming Muslim and paying lower taxes. Many in Kosovo, Bosnia, and Albania chose to do so. Turks gradually became less tolerant of all Christians, Turks became more corrupt, weaker, and the conquered territories became stronger. In 1770 Russia’s Catherine the Great encouraged Greeks to revolt against Turkey. The Turks sent Albanians in to crush the revolt. Greece became largely independent in 1828 after a war with Turkey. In 1856 Russia conquered the Crimea, on the Black Sea’s northern coast, largely defeating Turkey and its allies, Britain and France. In 1877 and 1878 Russia helped Serbia, Hungary, Romania (Wallachia and Moldavia), and others become independent. Also in 1878 Austria-Hungary ousted the Turks from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and annexed them in 1908. This angered the Serbs, who wanted to control the area. In the two Balkan Wars, 1909-1913, Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary lost territory, Greece and Romania gained some of it, Albania became independent of the Turks, and Serbia took Kosovo into its territory. Greece wanted southern Albania, Serbia wanted the rest of it, but a conference in London in 1913 established Albania’s borders almost as they are today. In 1914 a Serb assassinated the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, starting World War I. Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Germany lost the war. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in 1918, becoming Yugoslavia (“land of the South Slavs”) in 1929. In 1920 Greece and Turkey fought over territory, but the rapidly-modernized Turkey, under Ataturk, regained much of the lost territory in 1922. In 1924 an Albanian led a Serbian army to conquer Albania, he became King Zog. Italian troops in 1939 ousted him.
In 1940 Stalin took part of Moldavia from Romania and made it part of the Soviet Union. Like the rest of the Soviet Union, Moldavia became independent in 1991. In April 1941 the Yugoslavia government surrendered quickly to the Nazis. The people rebelled, Nazis fought Yugoslavia for two months, delaying Hitler’s planned invasion of the Soviet Union. Serbs told me the delay and cold weather helped slow down the Nazis. In 2005 I visited Jasenovaic concentration camp, where Nazis and collaborating Croats killed some 850,000 gypsies and Serbs, during World War II, 1941 to 1945. However, a Croat, later called Tito, led guerrilla fighters against Nazis, becoming dictator after victory. Under communism all religions were discouraged by the Balkan countries. Greece fought a civil war, 1944 to 1948, defeating the communists, with help from the West. Many Greeks told me we didn’t have to worry about Greece going communist, because “no two Greeks can agree on anything.” Tito quarreled with the Soviet Union’s Stalin. Tito and Romania’s cruel dictator Ceausescu were somewhat independent of the Soviet Union, becoming heroes in the West during the Cold War. When the Soviet Union’s Stalin died in 1953, Albania’s dictator Hoxha split with his less-harsh successor in 1960. China was Albania’s only ally, but when China’s Mao died in 1976 Hoxha split with his less-harsh successor in 1978. Hoxha closed the borders and installed more than 70,000 prefabricated concrete bunkers, to be used to fight any army of invading “revisionists.” The bunkers are now abandoned or used for toilets or waste. In 1986 Bulgaria ordered its one million Islamic Turks to use Christian names and speak Bulgarian. I met many of the Bulgarian Turks then, moving to Turkey. Bulgaria lost much of its rich tobacco and fruit growing industries.
When Tito died in 1980 the six republics (Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Hercegovina, Macedonia, and Montenegro) rotated the presidency of Yugoslavia. Kosovo was part of Serbia, its people were of 10 percent Serb and 90 percent Albanian descent. There was much corruption, and suspicion between Serbs and Croats. Serb leader Milosevic ended Kosovo’s semi-autonomy in 1989 by firing Albanians, installing all Serbian officials, and requiring that Serbian, not Albanian, be the language. Kosovo formed a shadow government and schools, and declared independence in 1992. Apparently no other country recognized its independence.
Croatia’s Tudjman, a former historian and nationalist, was elected president of Yugoslavia in April 1990. Croatia and Slovenia asked to terminate the country of Yugoslavia, they proposed a loose federation of the six countries. Serbia’s communist government, under Milosevic, refused. In 1990 I traveled in much of eastern and central Europe with Yugoslavia Tours. We were told in Croatia that within a few months there would be no more Yugoslavia, they were going independent. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in June, 1991. A Croat, Stipe Mesic, was the president of Yugoslavia then but Serbia opposed him. Fighting with Serbs began quickly. Slovenia, insulated from Serbia by Croatia, soon had peace when its parliament voted to delay independence. The European Union in January 1992 recognized the independence of Croatia and Slovenia. Bitter fighting in Croatia against nearby Serbs and those in Yugoslavia largely ended in 1994. Croatia, led by strongman Tudjman, continued to fight until the last Serbs were defeated, in January, 1998. Macedonia declared independence in September, 1991. The UN kept troops there to prevent war. Bosnia-Hercegovina declared independence in October, 1991. After a three-way war, with Croatians and Bosnians fighting Serbs and each other, and massive military help from NATO, a peace agreement was reached late in 1995. There were many atrocities committed by Serbs against Croats and Bosnians, and by Croats against Serbs and Bosnians. In Serbia, Milosevic invalidated elections in November 1996, then claimed a big victory in runoff elections. Large crowds demonstrated against him for weeks in Serbian cities. The army commander refused to end the demonstrations, and Milosevic’s big police force decided to “wait and see.” When Milosevic made a few concessions the demonstrations finally ended in January. In March 1998 Milosevic agreed to let the majority Albanians return to government schools in Kosovo but the minority Serbs rioted. Soon the strong Serbian military and police began to chase the majority ethnic Albanians out of Kosovo. On March 24, 1999 NATO began almost two months of bombing Serbs in Serbia and Kosovo, ending with most of the Serbs leaving Kosovo. The party of Milosivic lost elections late in 2000 but he tried to stay in power. Massive demonstrations forced him to abdicate.
The Balkans Today. Greece is prosperous, with many tourists. Greeks have considerable sympathy for other Slavic peoples. However, Greeks are mad at Macedonia because it adopted a red flag with yellow rays like sunshine, like Alexander the Great, which Greece claims. Bulgaria is backward, slow to change its economy after communism. Dinner usually requires more than three hours, to order, prepare, serve, and eat. During most of the years since 1990 it has had a repressive government, suspicious of individual freedoms. The secret police sometimes followed our small group of travelers in 1995. Bulgarians have long been grateful to Russians, for helping them oust the Turks. Bulgaria has much of interest for the historian and tourist. Albania has been the poorest country in Europe, the most backward, almost feudal. When communism gradually withered away, people stopped maintaining and even dismantled the irrigation system, so production dropped, as in all of the formerly communist countries. Olive groves began to die. One of my guides said “a new democracy is like a baby. It needs help for many years to survive.” A few Albanians became wealthy during the blockade against Yugoslavia, beginning about 1992, by smuggling local oil to Yugoslavia. Others escaped at night in small boats from the ports of Fier or Vlores, going across the Adriatic to Italy. I also saw many Albanians in Athens, where they were not welcome. In 1996 and 1997 anarchy began with demonstrations against the strongman, Berisha. He resigned, Italian troops were sent in to maintain order in Albania. Foreign troops during the Kosovo war in 1999 has helped Albania’s economy. Romania is also very poor. When I last traveled through Albania, in 2005, I found some prosperity: new cars, heavy traffic, much new construction of nice homes and gasoline stations, and mostly good roads. Most public school students in cities now study English and another foreign language. However, many Albanians still leave their country when they can.
In Romania, the dictator, Ceausescu, built large Soviet-style apartment buildings even in small towns. He required the people to buy them, but he gave no compensation for destroying their private homes. Farmers usually like to live in a private home near the fields where they work. Ceausescu and his wife were given a quick trial and executed on December 25, 1989. Romania is picturesque, with wagons and farm equipment pulled by horses, pretty rural villages, sheep, and cows, Slovenia, now a member of both NATO and the European Union, is prosperous, with buildings in good condition and many new cars. Croatia has much rich agricultural land but its cars are older and many buildings are not in such good repair, especially in Zagreb. Split and Dubrovnik are prosperous, with many tourists, and most of the damage done by Serbian bombs and shelling is repaired. Belgrade still has not repaired much damage done by NATO bombing in 1999. During the NATO bombing in 1990, a bridge in Novi Sad was destroyed, blocking all traffic on the busy Danube. Our 2002 river boat trip began in Amsterdam but ended in Budapest because the river was blocked by the damaged bridge in Novi Sad. A floating bridge was recently built, so in 2004 our boat from the Black Sea could go to Amsterdam, but it had to wait a few hours for the Novi Sad floating bridge to open.
Bosnia has many Orthodox Christians, like Serbia and Montenegro, but many people are not active in any religion. Rich Persian Gulf countries have recently built many mosques in Kosovo, Bosnia, Montenegro, Macedonia, and Albania. Until recently few had ever been in a mosque and local people old us they would prefer to have schools, health clinics, or better homes, no mosques. Girls in Bosnia and the Bosnia Serb Republic, Sprska, usually wear tight blue jeans and blouses, and no head scarf. Like all Slavs, a high percentage are pretty. Much of Bosnia still has damage from the 1990s war, mostly done by Serbs, some by Croats. In most of the former Yugoslavia, Serbs, Croats, Orthodox Christians, Roman Catholics, and Muslims live in separate areas and rarely mix. Even after death they are separated in cemeteries. During and after the 1990s war, many had to leave neighbors they had lived near in peace for many years--ethnic cleaning. We saw many damaged vacant buildings where an ethnic minority had been forced to leave during the war.
Sign at former Nazi Jasenovaic concentration camp, Croatia, where
Nazis & Croatian sympathizers killed some 900,000 Serbs during WWII
Sarajevo, Bosnia street scene Novi Sad, Serbia, new bridge to replace bridge
destroyed by NATO bombing
Montenegro, a scenic hilly country, like Albania, is known as "The Land without Law." Some car dealers sell almost-new cars stolen in Western Europe, after preparing new certificates of title. Montenegro has long been closely associated with Serbia, but there is much talk about a divorce. We had a long wait at the border in Macedonia before we were permitted to enter Kosovo, after buying local insurance. Markets in big towns such as Ferisaj (Urosavsac) were busy, with Muslims, Orthodox, and other shoppers. We talked with several local police and soldiers for the United Nations. They said if they can prevent violence there is a chance that Kosovo will return to peace. Most people in the southern two-thirds of Kosovo have ancestors who were Muslims. They were sent there from Albania by Turks, after Turks defeated Europeans in Kosovo in 1448. The northern third or less of Kosovo has mostly Serbs, nominally Orthodox Christians. During the 50 years or so of socialist governments in the Balkans, all religions were discouraged.
Looking at the former Yugoslavia, Serbs are said to be "short-tempered and rude." Croats and Slovenes are "industrious, methodical, reserved, and affluent." Bosnians are "stubborn." Macedonians are said to be "poets at heart," people of Montenegro "make better warriors than workers." I have made several trips to Yugoslavia. I always found the people to be friendly, like most people throughout the Balkans. Young women are often pretty, the men are handsome. During the many years of socialism, Yugoslavs were encouraged to travel and work abroad, to earn “hard money” to help Yugoslavia’s economy. Most people in socialist countries were never permitted to leave their country. A big department store in Beograd (Belgrade) had far more consumer goods, of reasonably good quality, than any store in the former Soviet Union at that time. Beograd had the first McDonalds in eastern Europe, it was always busy. Slovenes consider themselves to be central Europeans, not eastern Europeans. However, in nearby Trieste, Italy, an Italian engineer told me that Italians “never” go to Slovenia." In 1999 I traveled throughout Slovenia, finding it to be a delightful country, with much to see, friendly people, and reasonable prices.
The former Yugoslavia today consists only of Montenegro and Serbia, which includes Kosovo. However, with the help of the NATO military, Kosovo separated into Serbian and Albanian enclaves. It is largely independent. Hungary is not known as a Balkan country, but it has many Slavic peoples, among the Magyars. Throughout the former Soviet Union I was told that Hungary made the best-quality cars, trucks, and buses available in the communist world. On one of my trips to Hungary men were pulling down statues of communist heroes. However, they weren’t destroyed, only stored, “just in case.”
Quiet street in Cetinje, Montenegro, "a country without law" Saturday market in Ferasaj, Kosovo
The world must try to prevent further wars in the Balkans. Old enmities die slowly. A rabble-rouser can get quick support by a campaign against another ethnic or nationality group. Wars are easy to start but difficult to end. No one really wins. It is likely to result in a later “payback” or revenge war. Fighting since 1991 has destroyed the economy of most of the former Yugoslavia. It will be many years before the economies return to the level of 1990.
[In Countries and Cultures of the World, Then and Now, Vol. II, read the history and background of each of the Balkan countries, and the author’s adventures there, to understand has been happening.]
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